Child Care and Employed Parents of Children With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
Abstract
Lack of appropriate child care is frequently reported by parents of children with disabilities as a major obstacle to finding and maintaining their employment. Care for children with emotional or behavioral disorders is particularly difficult to locate because child care providers often lack adequate training. Findings are presented from interviews with 60 parents employed a minimum of 30 hr per week and caring for at least one school-age child with an emotional or behavioral disorder. Child care arrangements were varied and complex, with parents often making adjustments daily to design suitable care plans for all children in the family. Parental stress levels and work limitations because of child care were associated with levels of work—family fit, flexibility, child care difficulty, and child care satisfaction. We suggest that availability and access to child care options and supports specific to the needs of their children may be essential for employed parents of children with emotional or behavioral disorders to reduce stress and promote work—life integration.
Get full access to this article
View all access and purchase options for this article.
References
Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990, Pub. L. No. 101-336, §2, 104 Stat. 328 (1991).
Barnett, R.C. (1998). Toward a review and reconceptualization of the work/family literature. Genetic, Social, and General Psychological Monographs, 124(2), 125-182.
Barnett, R.C., & Brennan, R.T. (1995). The relationship between job experiences and psychological distress: A structural equation approach. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 16, 259-276.
Barnett, R.C., Brennan, R.T., & Marshall, N.L. (1994). Gender and the relationship between parent role quality and psychological distress: A study of men and women in dual-earner couples. Journal of Family Issues, 15, 229-252.
Bernheimer, L., Weisner, T.S., & Lowe, T. (2003). Impacts of children with troubles on working poor families: Experimental and mixed-method evidence. Mental Retardation, 41, 403-419.
Brandon, P.D. (2000). Child care utilization among working mothers raising children with disabilities. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 21, 343-364.
Brannan, A.M., & Heflinger, C.A. (2001). Distinguishing caregiver strain from psychological distress: Modeling relationships among child, family, and caregiver variables. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 10, 405-418.
Brennan, E.M., Bradley, J.R., Allen, M.D., Perry, D.F., & Tsega, A. (2005, March). The evidence base for mental health consultation in early childhood settings: Research synthesis and review. Paper presented at the Conference on Establishing the Evidence Base for Early Childhood Mental Health Consultation, Tampa, FL.
Brennan, E.M., Bradley, J.R., Ama, S.M., & Cawood, N. (2003). Setting the pace: Model inclusive child care centers serving families of children with emotional or behavioral challenges. Portland, OR: Portland State University, Research and Training Center on Family Support and Children's Mental Health.
Brennan, E.M., & Brannan, A.M. (2005). Participation in the paid labor force by caregivers of children with emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 13, 237-246.
Brennan, E.M., Rosenzweig, J.M., Ogilvie, A.M., Wuest, L., & Shindo, A.A. (2007). Employed parents of children with mental health disorders: Achieving work-family fit, flexibility, and role quality. Families in Society, 88(1), 115-123.
Child Care Law Center. (2003). Caring for children with special needs: The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and child care. San Francisco: Author.
Dunst, C.J., Jenkins, V., & Trivette, C. (1984). The family support scale: Reliability and validity. Journal of Individual, Family, and Community Wellness, 1(4), 45-52.
Emlen, A.C. (1997). Quality of child care and special needs of children who have emotional or behavioral problems. Survey conducted for the Oregon Child Care Research Partnership. Portland, OR: Portland State University, Regional Research Institute for Human Services .
Emlen, A.C., Koren, P.E., & Schultze, K. (1999). From a parent's point of view: Measuring the quality of child care. Portland, OR: Portland State University, Regional Research Institute.
Emlen, A.C., Koren, P.E., & Schultze, K. (2000). A packet of scales for measuring quality of child care from a parent's point of view: With summary of method and findings. Portland, OR: Portland State University, Regional Research Institute.
Evaluation Services Center. (1999). 1998-99 school-year program evaluation: Urban School Initiative School Age Childcare Expansion. Cincinnati, OH: University of Cincinnati, Evaluation Services Center, College of Education .
Fink, B.D. (2002). State policies impacting the participation of young children with medical needs in child care: A policy analysis conducted in connection with a developmental disabilities project of significance. Farmington: University of Connecticut, A. J. Pappanikou Center for Excellence in Developmental Disabilities Education, Research and Service.
Foster, J.B. (2004, April). The frequency and impact of daily child care disruptions. Paper presented at the 19th annual conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Chicago.
Foster, S. (2000). Schools and identification of mental health needs . Report of the Surgeon General's conference on children's mental health: A national action agenda. Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services.
Freedman, R.I., Litchfield, L.C., & Warfield, M. (1995). Balancing work and family: Perspectives of parents of children with developmental disabilities. Families in Society, 76, 507-515.
Friesen, B.J., & Brennan, E.M. (2005). Strengthening families and communities: System-building for resilience. In M. Ungar (Ed.), A handbook for working with children and youth: Pathways to resilience across cultures and contexts (pp. 295-312). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Galinsky, E. (1992). The impact of child care on parents. In A. Booth (Ed.), Child care in the 1990s: Trends and consequences (pp. 159-171). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gallimore, R., Weisner, T.S., Bernheimer, L.P., Guthrie, D., & Nihira, K. (1993). Family responses to young children with developmental delays: Accommodation activity in ecological and cultural context. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 98, 185-206.
Gerson, K. (1985). Hard choices: How women decide about work, career, and motherhood. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Giliberti, M. (2001). Olmstead planning for children with serious emotional disturbance: Merging systems of care principles with civil rights law. Washington, DC: Bazelon Center for Mental Health Law . Retrieved January 15, 2003, from http://www.bazelon.org/issues/children/publications/mergingsystems/olmsteadchildren2.pdf
Gilliam, W.S., & Shahar, G. (2006). Preschool and child care expulsion and suspension: Rates and predictors in one state. Infants and Young Children, 19, 228-245.
Heymann, J. (2000). The widening gap: Why working families are in jeopardy and what can be done about it. New York: Basic Books.
Holden, E.W., Stephens, R.L., Conner, T., Pope, A., Franco, E., & Liao, Q. (2002, May). Medication use for children in systems of care. Paper presented at the 154th annual meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, Philadelphia.
Huang, D., Gibbons, B., Kim, K.S., Lee, C., & Baker, E.L. (2000). A decade of results: The impact of the LA's BEST after school enrichment program on subsequent student achievement and performance . Los Angeles: University of California, Center for the Study of Evaluation, Graduate School of Education and Information Studies.
Institute for Social Research. (1999). 1997 time diary. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research. Retrieved August 2, 2005, from http://mv.ezproxy.com.ezproxyberklee.flo.org/CDS/TimeDiary.html
Johnston, K., & Brinamen, C. (2006). Mental health consultation in child care: Transforming relationships among directors, staff, and families. Washington, DC: Zero to Three.
Juster, F.T. (1985). The validity and quality of time use estimates obtained from recall diaries. In F. T. Juster & F. P. Stafford (Eds.), Time, goods, and well-being (pp. 63-91). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research .
Juster, F.T., & Stafford, F.P. (1991). The allocation of time, empirical findings, behavioral models and problems of measurement. Journal of Economic Literature, 29, 471-522.
Kutash, K., Duchnowski, A.J., & Friedman, R.M. (2005). The system of care twenty years later. In M. H. Epstein, K. Kutash, & A. J. Duchnowski (Eds.), Outcomes for children with emotional and behavioral disorders and their families: Program and evaluation best practices (2nd ed., pp. 3-22). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
LeRoy, B.W., & Johnson, D.M. (2002). Open road or blind alley? Welfare reform, mothers and children with disabilities. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 23, 323-337.
Neal, M.B., Chapman, N.J., Ingersoll-Dayton, B., & Emlen, A.C. (1993). Balancing work and caregiving for children, adults, and elders (Family Caregivers Application Series No. 3). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Ow, R., Tan, N.T., & Goh, S. (2004). Diverse perceptions of social support: Asian mothers of children with intellectual disability. Families in Society, 85, 214-220.
Porterfield, S.L. (2002). Work choices of mothers in families with children with disabilities. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 972-981.
Powers, E.T. (2003). Children's health and maternal work activity: Estimates under alternative disability definitions. Journal of Human Resources, 38, 523-556.
Rab, V.Y., Wood, K.I., & McCracken, J. (1995). Child care and the ADA: A handbook for inclusive programs. Baltimore: Brookes.
Rosenzweig, J.M., Brennan, E.M., & Ogilvie, A.M. (2002). Workfamily fit: Voices of parents of children with emotional and behavioral disorders. Social Work, 47, 415-424.
Rosenzweig, J.M., Brennan, E.M., Ogilvie, A.M., & Ward, A.A. (2000, February). Work-Family Fit Scale: Results of employed caregiver interviews. Paper presented at the 13th annual research conference of the Research and Training Center for Children's Mental Health, Tampa, FL.
Rosenzweig, J.M., & Huffstutter, K. (2004). Disclosure and reciprocity: On the job strategies for taking care of business . . . and family. Focal Point: A National Bulletin on Family Support and Children's Mental Health, 18(1), 4-7.
Shaw, P., Santos, S., Cohen, A., Araki, C., Provance, E., & Reynolds, V. (2001). Barriers to inclusive child care: Research study findings and recommendations. Sacramento, CA: WestEd Center for Prevention and Early Intervention (CPEI)/California Children and Families Commission.
Smith, T.B., Oliver, M.N., & Innocenti, M.S. (2001). Parenting stress in families with children with disabilities. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72, 257-261.
Sonenstein, F.L., Gates, G.J., Schmidt, S., & Bolshun, N. (2002). Primary child care arrangements of employed parents: Findings from the 1999 National Survey of America's Families (Occasional Paper Number 59). Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
Surgeon General. (2000). U.S. public health service, report of the Surgeon General's conference on children's mental health: A national action agenda. Washington, DC : National Institute of Mental Health.
Thyen, U., Kuhlthau, K., & Perrin, J.M. (1999). Employment, child care, and mental health of mothers caring for children assisted by technology. Pediatrics, 103, 1235-1243.
Yatchmenoff, D.K., Koren, P.E., Friesen, B.J., Gordon, L.J., & Kinney, R.F. (1998). Enrichment and stress in families caring for a child with a serious emotional disorder. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 7, 129-145.
Cite article
Cite article
Cite article
OR
Download to reference manager
If you have citation software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice
Information, rights and permissions
Information
Published In
Article first published online: June 1, 2008
Issue published: June 2008
Keywords
Authors
Metrics and citations
Metrics
Journals metrics
This article was published in Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders.
View All Journal MetricsArticle usage*
Total views and downloads: 425
*Article usage tracking started in December 2016
Articles citing this one
Receive email alerts when this article is cited
Web of Science: 45 view articles Opens in new tab
Crossref: 46
- Resources for whom? Conceptualizing and comparing childcare policy design for parents of children with additional or complex care needs
- Cross-cultural adaptation, validation and reliability analysis of child food neophobia scale among Pakistani preschoolers
- Well-Being of Parents of Children with Disabilities—Does Employment Status Matter?
- Association of child neurodevelopmental or behavioural problems with maternal unemployment in a population-based birth cohort
- The impact of autism spectrum disorder on parent employment: Results from the r‐Kids study
- Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Childhood ADHD Treatment Access and Utilization: Results From a National Study
- Supporting Fathers to Prevent Child Maltreatment: How Paid Family Leave and Child Care Subsidies Are Part of a Public Health Approach
- Family responsibilities and mental health of kindergarten educators during the first COVID-19 pandemic lockdown in Ontario, Canada
- Career adaptability of parents of children with autism spectrum disorder
- ‘I think sometimes that dads are kind of forgotten (…) so it’s nice that we also get a voice.’: work-life experiences of employed U.S. fathers caring for a child with special health care needs
- View More
Figures and tables
Figures & Media
Tables
View Options
Access options
If you have access to journal content via a personal subscription, university, library, employer or society, select from the options below:
I am signed in as:
View my profileSign out
I can access personal subscriptions, purchases, paired institutional access and free tools such as favourite journals, email alerts and saved searches.
loading institutional access options
Alternatively, view purchase options below:
Purchase 24 hour online access to view and download content.
Access journal content via a DeepDyve subscription or find out more about this option.
